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Seasonal migration is a dynamic natural phenomenon that allows organisms
to exploit favorable habitats across the annual cycle. While the
morphological, physiological, and behavioral changes associated with
migratory behavior are well characterized, the genetic basis of migration
and its link to endogenous biological timekeeping pathways is poorly
understood. Historically, genome-wide research has focused on genes of
large effect, whereas many genes of small effect may work together to
regulate complex traits like migratory behavior. Here, we explicitly relax
stringent outlier detection thresholds and, as a result, discover how
multiple biological timekeeping genes are important to migratory timing in
an iconic raptor species, the American Kestrel (Falco sparverius). To
validate the role of candidate loci in migratory timing, we genotyped
Kestrels captured across autumn migration and found significant
associations between migratory timing and genetic variation in metabolic
and light input pathway genes that modulate biological clocks (TOP1,
PHLPP1, CPNE4, and PEAK1). Further, we demonstrate that migrating
individuals originated from a single panmictic source population,
suggesting the existence of distinct early and late migratory genotypes
(i.e. chronotypes). Overall, our results provide empirical support for the
existence of a within population-level polymorphism in genes underlying
migratory timing in a diurnally migrating raptor.
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